Police suicide in Spain is a multifactorial phenomenon influenced by personal, institutional, and sociocultural factors. Exposure to occupational stress, trauma, and the stigma surrounding seeking help may increase the risk (Demou et al., 2020; Papazoglou & Tuttle, 2018; Violanti et al., 2017). However, there is a lack of empirical data on Spanish law enforcement. Recent studies of the Guardia Civil recommend exercising caution when interpreting occupational suicide rates, emphasising the need for context-specific assessment tools (Giner et al., 2025; González del Campillo et al., 2023). Together with the limitations of general population scales, these gaps justify the development of a culturally adapted instrument with embedded response validity indicators.

What specific characteristics make this population require tailored assessment instruments? The answer lies in the unique nature of their work environment, which is characterized by high psychological demands (Ruiz-Ruano et al., 2023), firearm handling (Hawton et al., 2024; Houtsma et al., 2018), frequent exposure to traumatic situations (Papazoglou & Tuttle, 2018), and potential response biases that can hinder an accurate risk assessment (Kreitchmann et al., 2019)

The present study focuses on the psychometric validation of an instrument specifically designed for this professional group: the Suicide Risk Assessment Scale for the National Police (VRS-PN). While other existing tools have been developed for general (Beck et al., 1979; Blasco-Fontecilla et al., 2012; Choi et al, 2022; Harris et al., 2021; Plutchik et al., 1989; Posner et al., 2011), the VRS-PN addresses the need for an instrument that considers the cultural, organizational, and psychological particularities of Spanish National Police officers. Recent systematic reviews of suicide-related measurement tools have succeeded in highlighting the diversity of tools currently available in the mechanised age, ranging from implicit cognition tests to attitude measures. However, none of these tools are necessarily appropriate for Spanish law enforcement officers, who are the focus of this paper (Díaz et al., 2025; Moreno et al., 2022). These findings reinforce the importance of developing and validating assessment techniques tailored to the cultural environment and professional realities of Spanish police officers. Additionally, it includes specific validity scales for response biases, such as simulation and dissimulation, aspects that are often overlooked in other suicide risk assessment tools. Measuring response biases in suicidal behaviour represents a crucial and innovative advancement in psychological assessment within this field.

Within Legal Psychology, and therefore in Police Psychology, it is essential to have valid, reliable, and contextually appropriate measurement tools to ensure accurate and well-founded evaluations. The development of psychometric tests should follow a systematic procedure to guarantee that these tools precisely assess what they are intended to measure (Muñiz & Fonseca-Pedrero, 2019). Moreover, understanding the scores given by the evaluated individuals does not only depend on the quality of the instrument but also on having appropriate normative benchmarks for meaningful analysis (Muñiz, 2018). The standardization of a test is crucial in its development to ensure that scores are comparable and to enhance the clinical and forensic utility of the instrument (Echeburúa et al., 2011).

The VRS-PN is an innovative and specialized tool designed to assess suicide risk in a highly vulnerable population: police officers. Police work is characterised by occupational and psychosocial stressors that can increase vulnerability to mental health problems. Nevertheless, empirical evidence indicates that officers generally display resilience and adaptive functioning supported by institutional and social resources. Research has highlighted the role of organisational support in fostering recovery (Emeriau-Farges et al., 2019) and the potential for positive growth following traumatic experiences when such support is available (Demou et al., 2020). Therefore, assessments in policing should address both vulnerability and protection processes (Viegas & Henriques, 2021). In line with this dual perspective, the VRS-PN incorporates indicators of psychological pain and hopelessness, together with response-validity checks designed to detect exaggeration and dissimulation typically observed in occupational evaluations.

Standardization aims to ensure that scores obtained in different situations and over time are comparable and can be analyzed in relation to a representative reference group. This process involves guaranteeing consistent test administration, obtaining reliable comparisons, confirming reliability and validity, establishing reference norms, and monitoring external factors that may influence results. Ensuring that a psychometric test is standardized requires following clear guidelines for its administration, scoring, and analysis, as well as collecting reference data to assess individual scores (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education., 2014). This not only enables score comparisons between individuals but also minimizes the influence of factors such as test administration and scoring procedures, which can affect outcomes (Muñiz & Fonseca-Pedrero, 2019).

The reliability and validity evidence of the VRS-PN is a key objective in the standardization process. The reliability of a test indicates how consistently it produces repeatable results, whereas validity focuses on its accuracy in measuring what it is intended to assess. Establishing reference standards is crucial to interpreting the scores obtained from the VRS-PN. These standards facilitate the understanding of an individual’s scores at a given time in relation to others within a comparison group, thereby simplifying decision-making based on clinical and empirical data.

Additionally, these criteria can be used to identify specific categories within the national police force that may require more complex or personalized interventions based on their individual needs. Moreover, consistency in administration helps mitigate the influence of external factors that could affect the outcomes of psychological assessments. These variables include age, years of service, sex, and geographic location, all of which may interact with the characteristics assessed by the VRS-PN and introduce distortions in evaluation results. Recognizing and managing these variables is crucial to ensuring fairness and accuracy in score interpretation (Hernández et al., 2020).

The standardization of the VRS-PN not only represents a critical technical advancement in ensuring the instrument’s excellence but also carries significant ethical and practical implications. Within the National Police, where decisions based on clinical and occupational assessments can have immediate consequences for officers’ lives, it is imperative that the quality of the instrument used remains a fundamental component.

The current state of research on suicide within law enforcement agencies reveals a significant lack of specific instruments tailored to the characteristics of security forces, particularly Spanish national police officers. This gap becomes evident when comparing traditional tools—designed for general populations—with the unique context of the Spanish police force. In this regard, the VRS-PN represents a necessary advancement aimed at assessing suicidal behavior within a distinct professional group, one characterized by an organizational culture that often hinders the open expression of psychological distress (Bell & Palmer-Conn, 2018).

The assessment of psychosocial factors within the context of the Spanish National Police highlights the critical impact of occupational stress on this population. Police officers exposed to extreme job demands, such as violence or traumatic events like suicides, often face severe psychological consequences that increase the risk of mental disorders and suicidal behaviors (Demou et al., 2020; Emeriau-Farges et al., 2019).

Shift work and high professional responsibilities contribute to significant emotional exhaustion, a pattern also observed in military and public security settings (Vega-Escaño et al., 2020; Viegas & Henriques, 2021). Repeated exposure to traumatic events can lead to secondary and vicarious trauma (Violanti et al., 2018). Additionally, frequent contact with violence may result in progressive desensitization (Velasco et al., 2023; White et al., 2025), making it more difficult to identify underlying mental health issues early on.

This accumulated stress not only increases psychological vulnerability but is also associated with issues such as substance abuse and diminished coping abilities (Blumberg et al., 2020). A critical analysis of these findings underscores the urgent need for more adaptive occupational and health policies focused on prevention.

Among the psychosocial factors associated with suicide risk in this group are disruptions in romantic relationships, financial instability, interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts (Krishnan et al., 2022), as well as behaviours such as impulsivity (Galanis et al., 2021; Rasmussen et al., 2024), hopelessness (Civilotti et al., 2022), social isolation (Violanti et al., 2009), and substance use.

Psychological pain, assessed as a key component of the VRS-PN, allows for a significant distinction between national police officers at risk of suicide and those without suicide risk. Furthermore, interpersonal conflicts among colleagues and superiors contribute to a hostile work environment (Gill et al., 2023), diminish perceptions of institutional support, and exacerbate feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness (Velasco et al., 2023).

In the suicide risk group, intrapersonal suicidal ideation—encompassing persistent thoughts about personal suffering—emerges as a particularly prevalent and significant factor (Violanti & Steege, 2021). It is essential to emphasize that these factors do not act in isolation but rather interact with each other and the work environment, intensifying suicide risk among national police officers. This underscores the need for comprehensive and contextually sensitive interventions (García-Haro et al., 2023).

The conceptual framework on suicidal behaviour in occupational contexts such as law enforcement is grounded in modern theories, including the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory (Joiner, 2005), the Three-Step Theory (Klonsky & May, 2015), and the Motivational-Volitional Theory (O’Connor, 2011).

O’Connor, through his Motivational-Volitional Model, emphasizes that occupational stress can act as a triggering factor for suicide attempts, particularly when it interacts with preexisting factors such as trauma or low self-esteem (Milner et al., 2017). Meanwhile, Klonsky and May’s (2015) Three-Step Theory highlights that the high-pressure environment of police officers can facilitate a rapid transition from passive to active suicidal ideation, exacerbated by access to lethal means and the absence of strong protective factors (Hoyt et al., 2020). Finally, Joiner’s (2005) Interpersonal-Psychological Theory laid the foundation for a significant expansion of empirical research addressing interpersonal relationships as a primary factor in the onset of suicidal ideation (Blaya, 2023).

These theories are part of the broader ideation-to-action framework (Klonsky & May, 2015; Klonsky et al., 2021). They serve as fundamental theoretical models for the design of the VRS-PN, which integrates key dimensions such as psychological pain, risk factors, behavioral tendencies, disconnection from the environment, and access to lethal means, among others. Theoretical models like these are essential for developing assessment tools with strong theoretical and predictive sensitivity.

Psychological assessment using measurement instruments in the context of suicide risk within the National Police highlights the importance of specialized tools such as the VRS-PN, compared to traditional scales designed for the general population (Al-Halabí et al., 2016; Rubio et al., 1998). The VRS-PN stands out due to its ability to control response biases such as feigning and concealment—an essential feature in a setting where emotional suppression and a culture of resilience prevail.

In this regard, Becerra-García (2016), González et al. (2010), Puente-López et al. (2024), and Torres-Brito et al. (2021) emphasize that incorporating items to detect inauthentic responses significantly enhances assessment accuracy, which is particularly relevant in fields where symptom concealment is common, such as law enforcement. However, studies indicate that only approximately 7% of officers seek psychological services, an alarmingly low figure that underscores the urgency of implementing accessible and culturally sensitive support systems within the organization (Velasco et al., 2023).

Effective and open communication within the organization is also crucial to reducing stigma and fostering a more inclusive and responsive environment for officers’ mental health needs (Pinfold et al., 2003; Watson et al., 2004). The specialized approach of the VRS-PN addresses the limitations of scales designed for more general contexts, which often fail to account for these specific dynamics.

For the above reasons, the objectives of this study are to standardize the VRS-PN in a representative sample of the National Police, to determine its underlying factor structure, to evaluate its psychometric properties, and to know the differences between groups. In addition, this study aims to calculate the specificity and sensitivity of the instrument to distinguish between national police officers at risk of suicide and those who, despite the time constraints of the service, remain on active duty without apparent risk of suicide.

The VRS-PN demonstrated good discrimination and factorial coherence in a large police sample, with added value from response validity indicators. While no gold-standard comparison was included, future studies should contrast the VRS-PN with established scales, assess its predictive validity and decision utility, and test its measurement invariance across career stages and units. This provides an innovative, reliable, and culturally adapted approach to suicide risk assessment in this unique professional context.

Firstly, Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics of the constructs obtained in this sample. Most scores are concentrated around low values. The Shapiro-Wilk test indicates that the distributions do not conform to normality. Subsequently, Table 2 presents the internal consistency of the dimensions of the VRS-PN and the total scale. The total scale exhibits acceptable to good reliability (α = .856, ω = .908) and good composite reliability (.978). The results range from .178 to .916 for α, while ω values range from .394 to .922. Lower reliability in risk factors and dissimulation reflects their intentionally heterogeneous and short content, conditions under which α tends to underestimate consistency. Therefore, CR and ω were also reported, with model-based indices (loadings and AVE; Table 4) supporting adequate construct representation.

For collect evidence on construct validity an EFA was initially conducted to identify the underlying structure of the VRS-PN. Bartlett’s test of sphericity, χ² = 11851(1225), p < .001, and the overall KMO index (.904) indicated that the data were suitable for factor analysis. The EFA revealed nine main factors, explaining 39.78% of the total variance. The fit statistics for this model are presented in Table 3.

Following the EFA, 11 items were removed due to methodological considerations. These included factor loadings below .30, indicating a limited contribution of the item to the factor (Jordan & Spiess, 2019), and significant cross-loadings, suggesting that the item does not clearly measure a single construct (Lloret-Segura et al., 2014; Thurstone, 1947). Additionally, some items exhibited low variability in their scores, meaning they did not provide useful information. Lastly, certain items demonstrated theoretical inconsistency with the factor on which they loaded highly, rendering them conceptually irrelevant. Based on these criteria, 39 items were retained for further analysis of the factorial structure of the VRS-PN.

Subsequently, with the 39-item version of the VRS-PN, a CFA was conducted. For this analysis, the items were grouped based on the information obtained from the EFA. The fit indices for this model are presented in Table 3. After making the necessary modifications to the model, such as reorganizing latent variables in a way that better aligns with theoretical considerations, a final model was obtained. As a result, the model significantly improved its fit, as also shown in Table 4. The test for perfect fit yielded a value of χ² = 4174(1125), p < .001. Additionally, the fit indices, including RMSEA (.042) and CFI (.985) indicate good fit; SRMR (.089) is marginal but consistent with large-model complexity. The analysis resulted in the identification of eight factors: intrapersonal suicidal ideation, interpersonal suicidal ideation, suicidal intent, risk factors, access to lethal means, behavioral tendencies, simulation, and dissimulation. Table 4 shows the factor loadings and average variance extracted (AVE) on each factor.

The results obtained in this study confirm the construct validity of the VRS-PN. The final version of the scale, consisting of 39 items, demonstrates adequate reliability and effectively distinguishes between police officers classified as at risk of suicide and those in the non-risk group. After conducting a systematic analysis, progressing through EFA and CFA, and subsequently making the necessary modifications, the findings indicate that the VRS-PN structure has construct validity. The interpretation of the model’s results suggests a good fit (Cho et al., 2020; Xia & Yang, 2019). These findings support the construct validity of the VRS-PN, with the proposed factors: intrapersonal suicidal ideation, interpersonal suicidal ideation, suicidal intent, risk factors, access to lethal means, behavioral tendencies, simulation, and dissimulation, in line with the ideation-to-action framework. The results of this study confirm the construct validity of the VRS-PN, evidencing its factorial structure and its discriminative capacity between National Police officers at risk of suicide and those not at risk. The VRS-PN has adequate sensitivity and specificity, calculated for all the factors it measures. These results provide an objective criterion for its application in police contexts.

A further innovation of the VRS-PN is the combination of the constructs of the theories of the ideation-to-action framework into two factors of suicidal ideation. On the one hand, intrapersonal suicidal ideation encompasses constructs related to internalizing suicidal behavior, such as hopelessness or psychological pain. On the other hand, the interpersonal suicidal ideation, whose constructs are related to the person’s relationships with his or her environment, see frustrated belonging or perceiving oneself as a burden to others (O’Connor & Kirtley, 2018; O’Connor et al., 2024). This differentiation allows for a more accurate assessment of the mechanisms underlying suicidal ideation within the police context.