Managers and subordinates utilize various strategies and tools to manage their daily communication and collaboration (Martin et al., 2004). One of these tools—humor—is any form of communication that induces laughter and joy and is shared socially through jokes, wits, puns, and other humorous expressions (Kuipers, 2008). It is regarded as an enjoyable form of communication that fosters positive emotions and perceptions among employees in organizational settings (Romero & Cruthirds, 2006).

Martin et al. (2003) introduced a humor-style model with four dimensions: affiliative humor and self-enhancing humor, which support psychological well-being, and aggressive humor and self-defeating humor, which pose potential drawbacks. Affiliative humor involves sharing amusing anecdotes, witty remarks, and collective laughter to enhance rapport, mitigate conflicts, and strengthen social interactions. It is considered a healthy humor style because it benefits both humorists and the audience. Another healthy humor style is self-enhancing humor, which is characterized by maintaining a humorous perspective on life and using humor as a coping mechanism and emotion regulation. Self-enhancing humor is individual-oriented, helping individuals manage negative or stressful situations (Martin et al., 2003; Mesmer-Magnus et al., 2012; Romero & Cruthirds, 2006). In contrast, aggressive humor, associated with criticism and manipulation through sarcasm, teasing, ridicule, derision, and disparagement, is considered unhealthy as it negatively affects the well-being of others. Self-defeating humor, involving self-deprecation to amuse others, is also deemed unhealthy, as it seeks social acceptance by belittling oneself. However, its optimal use in organizations can increase the accessibility of humorists (Martin et al., 2003; Romero & Cruthirds, 2006; ahin, 2018).

Humor plays a crucial role in interactions and influences organizations by enhancing staff motivation, communication, and conflict management (Hurren, 2006). Studies show that leaders’ positive humor fosters social support (Caudill & Woodzicka, 2017), high-quality relationships, and engagement with supervisors (Pundt & Herrmann, 2015), and lowers stress (Romero & Cruthirds, 2006). It also improves performance, reduces organizational threat, and supports change (Mesmer-Magnus et al., 2012). Furthermore, it influences job crafting, which in turn affects emotions, job satisfaction, person-job fit, POS, and work engagement (Tan et al., 2020).

In schools, positive humor boosts teachers’ motivation, productivity, and job satisfaction while alleviating stress (Hurren, 2006). It serves as a coping skill, enhancing interpersonal relations and work environment, reducing student stress (Şahin, 2021), developing school culture (de Guzman & Arceo, 2022), and positively influencing teachers’ emotional labor (Liao et al., 2020).

Mental well-being is described as a state that helps individuals manage life stress, recognize their abilities, learn and work effectively, and contribute to their community (World Health Organization [WHO, 2022]). It involves maintaining a positive yet dynamic balance between resources and challenges in various aspects: individual, social, environmental, physical, and psychological (Benevene et al., 2020). Although there is no consensus on a precise definition of mental well-being, it is conceptualized in three dimensions: emotional well-being (positive feelings), psychological well-being (self-acceptance, personal growth, and purpose), and social well-being (quality relationships and social support) (Keyes, 2002).

Considering the stress of teaching (Agyapong et al., 2022), teachers’ mental well-being is crucial for positive outcomes at schools (Capone & Petrillo, 2020). Teacher well-being, encompassing factors such as workload, organizational interaction, and student well-being, affects teaching effectiveness (Duckworth et al., 2009) and student outcomes (Glazzard & Rose, 2020). Teacher well-being is negatively associated with stress, burnout (Buri et al., 2019), and turnover intention (Collie, 2023). Given the positive correlation between happiness, life satisfaction, and mental health (Bieda et al., 2019) as well as the beneficial impact of positive humor in the workplace (Guenter et al., 2013; Martin et al., 2003), addressing teachers’ well-being is essential. As the use of affiliative humor in schools, especially by school administrators, may contribute to mitigating negative workplace emotions and enhancing the perception of teacher well-being, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: Teachers’ perceptions of school administrators’ use of affiliative humor are positively related to teachers’ mental well-being.

Research on teacher well-being has been investigated by several theoretical perspectives. For instance, Positive Educational Psychology emphasizes the development of individual strengths, virtues, and positive experiences in educational settings, focusing on factors such as positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, accomplishment, strength, and resilience (Noble & McGrath, 2015; Seligman, 2011) to enhance well-being. Put differently, this theory highlights the importance of cultivating positive emotions and personal growth for the engagement and satisfaction of teachers. Positive School Organizational Climate research, on the other hand, focuses on how shared values, supportive social relationships, and a constructive school environment influence teacher motivation, commitment, and well-being (Thapa et al., 2013). This perspective categorizes school climate into four dimensions, namely safety, teaching and learning, relationships, and institutional environment, and emphasizes that these dimensions interact to create a supportive environment to enhance student engagement, achievement, and teacher satisfaction. In other words, Positive School Organizational Climate emphasizes the collective and environmental aspects of schools that facilitate positive organizational experiences. The Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) theory conceptualizes well-being as the outcome of the balance between occupational demands, such as workload, emotional strain, and role conflict and job resources, including autonomy, social support, and feedback (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Demerouti et al., 2001). In other words, while JD-R theory provides a framework for understanding how excessive job demands could trigger burnout and well-being (Schaufeli & Taris, 2014), its primary focus lies in the functional role of resources in buffering stress and enhancing motivation.

Although all these frameworks offer valuable insights into teacher well-being, the present study adopts Perceived Organizational Support (POS) as the primary theoretical lens. The mechanism of POS, based on a type of employee-organization interaction called organizational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986), explains how employees develop beliefs about the extent to which their organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being. Organizational support theory posits that employees form a generalized perception of the extent to which their organizations support them (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Although the theory was originally developed to explain employees’ perceptions of support from the organization as an abstract entity (Eisenberger et al., 1986), subsequent research has emphasized that employees’ perceptions of organizational support are largely shaped through interactions with organizational agents who are authorized to act on behalf of the organization (Eisenberger et al., 2002). In other words, POS emerges through the personalization of the key organization agents, such as administrators by employees. Employees attribute personality and intentions, positive or negative, to the organization based on how administrators treat them (Eisenberger & Stinglhamber, 2011). Accordingly, it refers to the general belief that employees have developed about the extent to which their organizations, as represented by administrators, value their contributions, care about their well-being, and support them in difficult situations (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002).

Numerous studies mention the benefits of POS for both employees and organizations. Higher POS correlates with better job performance (Eisenberger et al., 1990), enhanced job satisfaction (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002; Zhu et al., 2024), increased emotional commitment and reduced turnover (Eisenberger et al., 1986), improved cooperation and solidarity (Şahin, 2018), increased teacher retention (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002), and enhanced organizational commitment (Zhang et al., 2023). Conversely, low POS results in decreased performance (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002), reduced commitment, and higher turnover intention (Eisenberger et al., 2002). In educational settings, school administrators take up a noticeable position as organizational agents. Especially in highly centralized education systems, such as Turkey’s, school administrators are primarily responsible for enacting centrally determined policies, distributing workloads, managing instructional expectations, and fulfilling institutional demands. Under these circumstances, teachers’ daily experiences of the educational system are largely shaped through their interactions with school administrators. As a result, teachers’ perceptions of organizational support are formed through their interactions with school administrators rather than through abstract organizational structures (Bogler & Nir, 2012). This structural characteristic positions school administrators as the main organizational agents through whom organizational support is perceived or not. At this point, POS (Eisenberger et al., 2002; Eisenberger & Stinglhamber, 2011) may be pertinent for examining the associations among teachers’ perceptions of school administrators’ use of affiliative humor and their mental well-being in public schools. As school administrators are the most visible representatives of the organization, teachers often interpret the level of support provided by the organization through their interactions with administrators.

Affiliative and self-enhancing humor are considered positive humor styles. However, unlike the more individual-oriented self-enhancing humor, affiliative humor is inherently extraverted, social, and interactive, promoting positive, non-harmful social interactions (Martin et al., 2003), and making it particularly relevant for enhancing teachers’ POS and mental well-being in educational settings. Through positive administrator–teacher interactions, affiliative humor signals a supportive and trusting workplace and shapes teachers’ beliefs that the organization (represented by the administrator) values their contributions and cares about their well-being. In contrast, self-enhancing humor is less likely to be perceived as a direct act of organizational support or a contributor to teachers’ collective well-being.

According to the Organizational Support Theory, employees personify the organization through the behaviors of its agents (Eisenberger et al., 2002; Eisenberger & Stinglhamber, 2011). Therefore, in schools where teachers’ daily interactions with the organization are largely mediated by school administrators, administrators’ actions serve as important cues through which organizational support can be perceived. Accordingly, POS provides a coherent lens for examining how administrators’ affiliative humor communicates organizational care and value, thereby shaping teachers’ well-being. This proactive display of positive regard through humor may be posited to precede and shape teachers’ overall perception of organizational support, rather than merely being a consequence of pre-existing high POS. As posited by the extant literature, affiliative humor may be increasing POS through a number of mechanisms, including the promotion of a sense of belonging, the fulfillment of social needs, the fostering of positive relationships, and the reduction of teachers’ perceived stress. Utilizing affiliative humor by administrators to evoke positive emotions in employees (Şahin, 2018) may be associated with employees’ POS. Thus, we propose Hypothesis 2:

H2: Teachers’ perceptions of school administrators’ affiliative humor use are positively related to teachers’ POS.

Numerous studies have explored the mediating role of POS in various contexts, including employees’ perceptions of justice, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions (Loi et al., 2006); authentic leadership and intention to stay with the organization (Aria et al., 2019); the influence of interpersonal and informational justice on citizenship behavior (Cheung, 2013); and the connection between diversity management, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment (Ateş & Ünal, 2021). However, limited research has investigated the influence of POS on the relationship between school administrators’ affiliative humor use and teachers’ mental well-being.

Consistent with JD-R theory, POS acts as a crucial job resource that fulfills employees’ basic needs for social support (Demerouti et al., 2001; Eisenberger & Stinglhamber, 2011). This fulfillment of needs may directly contribute to a positive emotional state and psychological resilience, thereby being linked to mental well-being. While a reciprocal relationship may exist in the long term, our model prioritizes the established pathway in which POS is associated with teachers’ mental well-being. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was developed:

H3: Teachers’ POS is positively related to teachers’ mental well-being.

Administrators’ affiliative humor, while directly impacting teachers’ immediate mood and rapport, also serves a more systemic role in shaping their perception of their organization. Because administrators are key organizational agents (Eisenberger et al., 2002), teachers may interpret administrators’ affiliative humor use as signals reflecting how supportive and caring the organization is toward employees. Such interpretations may be associated with higher levels of POS. This enhanced POS subsequently serves as a psychological resource, satisfying teachers’ needs for belonging and esteem, thereby improving their mental well-being (Eisenberger & Stinglhamber, 2011; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Therefore, the relationship between perceived affiliative humor and teachers’ mental well-being may also be associated with teachers’ perceptions of a supportive work environment. Therefore, we propose Hypothesis 4:

H4: Teachers’ POS mediates the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of school administrators’ affiliative humor use and teachers’ mental well-being.

We used the 8-item affiliative humor (AH) subscale of the 32-item Humor Styles Questionnaire (HSQ) (Martin et al., 2003) to assess school administrators’ affiliative humor use as perceived by teachers in the school context. The HSQ is a self-reported instrument consisting of four dimensions, two of which are compatible styles (affiliative humor and self-enhancing humor) and two of which are incompatible styles (aggressive humor and self-defeating humor) (Martin et al., 2003). HSQ was first adapted to Turkish by Yerlikaya (2003) to evaluate university students’ humor styles. Şahin (2016) adapted this Turkish HSQ as a follower-report measurement to determine school administrators’ humor styles based on teacher opinions (χ²/df = 4.10, RMSEA = .059, SRMR = .069, GFI = .92, TLI = .94, Cronbach’s alpha = .74).

Affiliative humor (AH) is related to the tendency to joke around with others, tell amusing stories, laugh with others, and amuse others (Martin et al., 2003), and is shared between the humor-producing and humor-receiving parties. As AH is an extroverted, interactive style of humor, it is observed and experienced by others. Put differently, individuals’ perceptions are primarily shaped by what they observe and experience. At this point, we may argue that the impact of school administrators’ affiliative humor on teachers’ outcomes (such as perceived organizational support and mental well-being) operates through perceived behavior rather than administrators’ self-perceptions. Therefore, in this study, we preferred using the AH scale as a follower-report format capturing teachers’ subjective perceptions of their administrators’ humor-related behaviors rather than their objective humor style, as in Şahin (2016).

In this study, the AH scale consisted of eight items (e.g., “Our school administrators enjoy making people laugh”) to reflect teachers’ perceptions of their administrators’ humor behaviors. Five of the eight items were negatively phrased reverse items. Responses to all items were on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree). Five negatively phrased items were reverse-coded. This adaptation aligns with our earlier theoretical assumption that the effects of administrators’ humor on teacher outcomes operate through perceived behaviors, not administrators’ self-perceptions. This approach ensures that the measure captures the impact of AF from the perspective of those who directly experience it.

To address concerns regarding validity, we also conducted CFA, which demonstrated satisfactory model fit (χ² = 41.33, df = 15, χ²/df = 2.76, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .03, GFI = .98, TLI = .97) and standardized regression weights (all items significantly loaded on one latent factor; coefficients ranged from .52 to .79) for the AH scale in its adapted form. The internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) also indicated acceptable reliability (.86).

We measured teachers’ perceived organizational support (POS) using the 8-item short form of the POS scale developed by Eisenberger et al. (1997). A sample item includes, “My organization strongly considers my goals and values”. Two of the eight items were negatively phrased reverse items. Responses to all items were on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree). Two negatively phrased items were reverse-coded.

The Turkish short form of the POS scale was previously validated by Uzun (2018), and according to the CFA results, the fit indices for the scale were χ²/df = 2.80, GFI = .93, AGFI = .87, IFI = .91, CFI = .91, and RMR = .05. The Cronbach’s alpha was .86. In our study, to address validity, we conducted CFA, which demonstrated a satisfactory model fit (χ² = 58.24, df = 18, χ²/df = 3.24, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .03, GFI = .99, TLI = .98) and standardized regression weights (all items significantly loaded on one latent factor; coefficients ranged from .63 to .84). The Cronbach’s alpha for this measure in the current study was 0.92.

Mental well-being (MW-B) was measured using the Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale (SWEMWBS), a seven-item scale developed by Stewart-Brown et al. (2009). A sample item includes, “I’ve been feeling relaxed”. Responses to all items were on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = none of the time to 5 = all of the time. All items were positively phrased.

The Turkish long form of the MW-B scale was previously validated on public school teachers by Şahin et al. (2019), with satisfactory fit indices (χ²/df = 1.98, RMSEA = .062, SRMR = .03, GFI = .97, AGFI = .94, NFI = .97, and CFI = .99) and reliability (Cronbach’s alpha was .84). Furthermore, the Turkish short form of the MW-B scale was validated on Turkish university students by Demirta and Baytemir (2019), and according to the CFA results, the fit indices for the scale were χ²/df = 1.98, RMSEA = .062, SRMR = .03, GFI = .97, AGFI = .94, NFI = .97, and CFI = .99. The Cronbach’s alpha was .84. Because we used a short form of the MW-B scale on public school teachers, we again tested the validity and reliability of the scale. The CFA in our study also demonstrated a satisfactory model fit (χ² = 70.70, df = 12, χ²/df = 3.39, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .03, GFI = .98, TLI = .97) and standardized regression weights (all items significantly loaded on one latent factor; coefficients ranged from .55 to .77). Cronbach’s alpha for this measure was 0.87.