Relationships between emotional intelligence and sales performance in Kuwait

Table 1 shows descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients for all measures. The total EIS, AES, and Sale's Performance measures have high Cronbach alpha coefficients, where the sub-measures of AES have reasonable coefficients. The means and standard deviations are shown in Table 1.

As shown in Table 2 , we found a negative weak but significant correlation between TSP and AES ( r = -.16), and its subscales Self-Evaluation ( r = -.15), Self-Regulation (r = -.13), and Utilizing of Emotions ( r = -.12). However, no significant relationship was found between TSP and the EIS. Additionally, no significant relationship was found between OSP and AES. Moreover, a positive weak but significant correlation was found between OSP and the EIS ( r = .12) and its subscales: Accuracy ( r = .16) and Patience (r = .12). Similarly, OYES in the sales field correlated significantly but weakly with both AES ( r = .12) and EIS (r = .13).

Linear regression, as shown in Table 3 , was used to investigate the effect of the independent variables satisfying the regression equation (AES, EIS, age, experience within current company, and overall experience in the sales field) on the dependent variable (TSP). Note that another regression equation revealed no effect of any of the independent variables on OSP.

The F- value for variance was found to be statistically significant at p = .01, where R was found to be .289. The equation demonstrates that the AES scale is inversely predictive of TSP. However, Total EIS was found to not be predictive of TSP. Notably, this finding was not consistent with the result of correlation analysis. As it did not satisfy the regression equation, the researchers will rely on the regression findings. Age was found to be inversely predictive of TSP, i.e., the younger the salesperson, the higher his/her TSP, while Years of Experience in the Current Company was found to not be predictive of TSP, the Overall Experience in Sales Field was. The regression equation shows that Overall Experience in Sales Field, Age, and AES collectively contribute by 8% to the variance among sales employees in TSP.

The sample was characterized by high sales performance levels, both total and objective. The automotive industry in Kuwait has one key purpose: to sell cars with more than 30 different brands competing in a small market. Because the competitive nature of this industry demands highly competent sales employees, this sample population is ive. Additionally, the sales employees studied receive effective training in professional selling skills, which was reported by their supervisors and HR departments and is reflected in the results.

However, previous research in sales found that self-reported and managerial-reported performance data are positively skewed ( Dwyer, Hill, & Martin, 2000; Sharma, Rich, & Levy 2004 ). Both objective and subjective managerial-reported performance data were used in this study. Both criteria were used because it has been found in multiple meta-analyses of job performance that the two types are non-exchangeable ( Bommer, Jonathan, Gregory, Philip, & Scott, 1995; Ng, Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005 ). Although objective data (actual sales volume achieved) is not subject to bias by the rater (sales manager), in this research no significant relationship was found between OSP and emotional intelligence assessed by AES, whereas TSP was found to be significantly correlated with AES.

In the meta-analysis conducted by Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004) to assess the influence of emotional intelligence on performance, they found a positive correlation between EI and work performance but the magnitude is not strong, r = .24. Also, in the recent meta-analysis of O’Boyle et al. (2011) they found the three streams of EI measures reported in the literature do have significant positive correlations with job performance, but the magnitude is not strong, ranging from r = .24 to .30.

In this study, the researchers d the entire population of car sellers in Kuwait and as mentioned in the results section they found the sample to be characterized by a high mean EI level on the AES scale. Moreover, the variance within the sample was found to be low, i.e., the variation in the dependent variable (sales performance) was low. This might have contributed to the inability to unveil a relationship with the independent variable (EI), especially that our model hypothesized a linear relationship between EI and performance.

Interestingly, when the data was divided to “high” and “low” performance with reference to mean sales performance, the researchers found “low” performers to be of higher EI levels while “high” performers had lower EI levels. This is probably suggesting a non-linear relationship.

Other studies have investigated the relationship between EI and work performance using non-linear models. For example Cote et al. (2006) found the relationship to be compensatory, where EI is higher in individuals having lower cognitive intelligence in a sample of university employees, while Kidwell et al. (2011) found the relationship to be complementary, such that EI was higher among individuals with higher cognitive intelligence in a sample of sales employees. These two studies revealed that cognitive intelligence is a moderator in the relationship between EI and performance. However, in the current study the researchers have not investigated cognitive intelligence.

It is worth noting that Sturman (2003) , in a meta-analysis study, searched for the inverted U-shaped relationship between time and performance. Sturman found an inverted U-shaped relationship between time and performance for the three relationships examined (job experience/performance, age/performance, and tenure/performance) in low complexity jobs. When jobs are of high complexity, the relationship is found non-linear but not an inverted U-shape. The results were the same whether the performance was measured subjectively or objectively. This paper showed how job context is a moderating factor altering the performance relationship and although it did not EI in the study, what matters here is the job context. Selling in general is not a simple type of job, and when it comes to selling cars it is challenging for two reasons. First, a car is not a commodity and the prices are quite expensive. Second, the Kuwaiti market is small in terms of population and having 30 dealers competing makes selling cars a real challenge. So, probably “car selling” challenge or complex nature moderated the relationship between sales performance and EI in the current study.

Our study has a value of raising a scientific question regarding the relationship between job performance (sales) and emotional intelligence, rather than giving a definite result.

A similar lack of relationship was found between MSCEIT v2 and OSP for sales volume of car sellers and consulting services ( Bryant, 2005 ). This author recommended that future researchers investigate a broader performance model or evaluate the nature of the emotional intelligence construct at the definitional stage. Dalal (2005) demonstrated that job performance is actually composed of three facets: objective/subjective ratings, organizational citizenship behavior, and counterproductive workplace behaviors. The last two facets were not d in this study.

Contrary to what is reported in most literature, the present study found a negative relationship between AES and TSP. The regression analysis results that among the three independent variables that satisfied the equation, the two emotional intelligence scales used in this study contributed the least (by only 24%). Similarly, Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004) , in their meta-analysis of the predictive validity of emotional intelligence scales, found that general mental ability did significantly predict performance beyond that explained by EI. They concluded that the claims of EI being a more important predictor than cognitive ability (e.g., Goleman, 1995 ) are apparently more anecdotal than factual.

In their contemporary meta-analysis of “drivers of sales performance”, Verbeke, Dietz, and Verwaal (2011) found cognitive ability to be significantly positively related to sales performance. However, as Verbeke, Belschak, Bakker, & Dietz (2008) show, cognitive abilities should be complemented by other abilities, especially social skills, to prevent firms from only hiring “competent jerks”, which can result in dissatisfied customers.

Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004) have suggested using moderator models rather than linear models when studying the relationship between emotional intelligence and job performance. This suggestion seemingly encouraged Cote et al. (2006) to propose a moderator model in their investigation. They support the arguments of Murphy (1996) and Hough (2003) , which suggest that predictors of job performance such as EI may be important in ways other than incremental linear effects. Therefore, they proposed a compensatory model in which cognitive intelligence moderates the association between EI and job performance. The results of their study revealed the existence of such a relationship. They found that EI becomes a stronger predictor of task performance as cognitive intelligence decreases: employees with low cognitive intelligence perform tasks more competently if they are emotionally intelligent. Their study d 175 full-time employees of a large public university in Canada. Notably, Schutte et al. (2009) , in their review of the AES, had recommended applying moderator models when studying EI.

In their recent study, Kidwell et al. (2011) also used a moderator model while researching the relationship between EI and sales performance. The result indicated a complementary relationship between EI and cognitive ability: emotional intelligence positively influences performance at higher levels of cognitive ability. This finding is the opposite of that of Cote et al. (2006) . Clearly, the emotional intelligence literature is still mixed and needs more research to obtain more definitive answers.

The sample in the present study consists almost entirely of expatriates (only 2.3% of participants were Kuwaitis). Expatriate employees need to work hard to secure their jobs and are expected to apply taught skills to prove their competency.

The self-report type of scale that was used in this study to measure emotional intelligence might be another reason for the unexpected results. Bracket, Rivers, Shiffman, Lerner, and Salovey (2006) demonstrated that the self-reported emotional intelligence scales inadequately assess EI. They found rather low associations between ability models of emotional intelligence and self-report emotional intelligence scales ( r values approximately .22), indicating that the approaches yield different information about the same person ( Bracket and Mayer, 2003).

An important point is that in general, self-report measures are often considered to be inadequate because people tend to report their abilities inaccurately ( Paulhus, Lysy, & Yik, 1998 ). They also tend to filter self-reports through their self-concepts and impression management motives ( Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000 ), which potentially encourages socially desirable responses. Kirk, Schutte, and Hine (2008) found that the AES scores were not related to social desirability responding. However, the question remains as to whether self-report scales developed based on Mayer and Salovey's (1997) ability model measure actual EI ability or what the individual thinks/believes of himself/herself.

The mixed results over 20 years of emotional intelligence literature, nurtured by the use of different scales based on different concepts, urge the researchers to undertake such differences in stride. This would yield a more definitive understanding of the components of emotional intelligence, which could redirect the research efforts and HRM practices within organizations. Our study found no relationship between the EIS and TSP. This scale as reported previously in this text is based on the mixed model of Emotional Intelligence. This result does not agree with our finding above concerning the relationship between emotional intelligence and TSP.

The correlation analysis shows no association between age and emotional intelligence measured by AES ( Table 2 ), which is not in agreement with the literature. Several studies have reported that age is positively associated with emotional intelligence ( Bar-On, 1997, 2002; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2000; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002 ). Generally, the meta-analytic review of predictors of sales performance ( Vinchur, Schippmann, Switzer III, & Roth, 1998 ) found age to be predictive of sales performance as rated by the supervisors but not predictive of OSP. When age was d in the regression equation of this study, i.e., in interaction with other variables, a relationship was found: age was the second highest impacting factor on TSP (24.6%), although it was found to be inversely related to the TSP. Rahim and Malik (2010) investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational performance in the banking sector in Pakistan. Measuring EI with the same scale used in this study, Rahim and Malik (2010) found that age has a negative relationship with emotional intelligence that affects organizational performance. The explanation of their finding was that youngsters are very energetic and inspired by good careers and professional growth, but they have been overextended; due to the long hours they must work to earn sufficient money for expenses, they have no time for social activities and families.

McDaniel, Pesta, and Banks (2012 , p. 293) drew the conclusion that age has an inverted-U relationship with job performance where performance in most jobs starts to decline after age 50. They believed that this finding applies to people in less cognitively demanding jobs. However, those working in highly complex jobs, such as medical doctors and lawyers, where performance relies on an already-acquired knowledge structure, are expected to maintain their performance longer. In this research study, the average chronological age of the sales employees was approximately 37 years old. The OYES has the highest predictive value (41.6%) of TSP. Experience is associated with age. Chronological age is the most-studied conceptualization of age, although al or biological age may also be relevant ( McDaniel et al. (2012 , p. 291). Functional age refers to the ability of the individual to perform the job based on mental and physical abilities. In this study, it was found that many of the sales employees had a “breadth” of sales experience, i.e., had worked in the sales profession but in different fields including automotive, IT, furniture, apparel, retail, make-up, telecommunication, and family business. The breadth of sales knowledge, professional practice, and acquired interpersonal skills through customer interactions apparently had increased their al age while the sample studied was only 37 years old on average. This factor most likely positively influenced their TSP.

There were some limitations in this study. First, because the study focused on the automotive industry in Kuwait, the findings are specific to this industry and cannot be generalized. Second, this research study is cross-sectional in nature; thus, it should be replicated in the automotive industry as well as other industries in order to gain more insight into the relationships between emotional intelligence and sales performance. Third, the researched population of salespersons was almost entirely expatriates due to the nature of this profession, Kuwaiti culture, and HRM practices. Thus, we were not able to investigate emotional intelligence among Kuwaitis. Perhaps another study can be designed to target Kuwaitis in different industries. Fourth, only one type of emotional intelligence scales—the self-report—was used in this study. The busy nature of the sales profession in general, and specifically within the Kuwaiti automotive industry, makes it very challenging to administer the time-consuming EI ability tests.

In conclusion, this research study is unique because it is the first to study the relationships between emotional intelligence and sales performance in the Kuwaiti market. The finding of a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and sales performance coupled with the positive relationship between total sales experience and sales performance encouraged the researchers to adopt the moderator model in future studies in order to accommodate the various moderators possibly contributing to this relationship. Moreover, the type of emotional intelligence scale is a critical issue, as reported in the literature and observed in this study. This factor urges EI researchers to consider a comparative study investigating the EI-performance relationships using ability test scales and self-report scales. Although many self-report scales have been designed and tested by Arabic researchers in their countries, there is a lack of a similar effort in terms of ability tests. Additionally, given the mixed findings in the emotional intelligence literature studying its relationship with performance throughout twenty years of investigation, the researchers of this study recommend conducting a longitudinal study that would help determine the nature of this relationship.

The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest.